Although rather largely unknown today, Ipy was a very ancient Egyptian goddess that appeared to be held in high esteem and prominence in Upper Egypt with her cult carrying particular weight in the Theban realm.
So much so that she was directly associated by name with both major temple complexes of Karnak, known as ‘Ipet-Isut’ (likely spelling ‘Sacred place of Ipet’), and Luxor, called ‘Ipet Resyt’ (meaning ‘the ‘Sanctuary of Ipet’)(1).
Further known as Opet or Apet, her cult is attested as early as the Pyramid era and the Old Kingdom regarded as protector of the Pharaoh oneself as well as the very mother of Osiris in the Theban theology.
She was usually portrayed as a hippopotamus but could also be depicted as a blend of hippo, crocodile, lion and human – maybe hinting at her being a shape-shifter…? – while holding the Ankh (symbol of life).
On top of that, she can be further seen holding a symbol reminiscent of the Tyet, also known as the Knot of Isis, but without the arms. The latter symbol is attested considerably before Isis herself so it may have not been originally attached to her.
Consequently, could have Ipy shaped a forerunner of Isis, consort and sister of Osiris, as well as potentially been linked to the underworld?
For that matter, her name might as well suggest itself as a likely root of the word ‘hippo.’
This is a reconstruction of ancient Thebes as it would likely look during the reign of Ramesses II (or the Great) between 1279 and 1213 BC, Nineteenth Dynasty in the New Kingdom.
Since about 1500 BC, the city was likely the largest in the (at least known) world boasting a population or around 75000 people and remained so until the late 10th century BC.
Όταν σκέφτεστε την Αίγυπτο, ποιο είναι το πρώτο πράγμα που έρχεται στο μυαλό σας; Αντιλαμβάνομαι, για τη μεγάλη πλειοψηφία, αυτό θα ήταν το Συγκρότημα των Πυραμίδων της Γκίζας, ή Νεκρόπολη της Γκίζας, και αυτό το αινιγματικό μονολιθικό άγαλμα της Μεγάλης Σφίγγας που βρίσκεται μπροστά τους επάνω στο Οροπέδιο της Γκίζας στη δυτική όχθη του Νείλου ατενίζοντας την ανατολή.
Αλλά τι ήταν η Σφίγγα κατά πρώτο λόγο και τι σκοπό(-ους) εξυπηρετούσε; Ξεκινώντας, δεδομένου ότι η mainstream Αιγυπτιολογία θεωρεί ότι κτίστηκε κατά την εποχή του Φαραώ Khafre (Χέφρην) (γύρω στο 2603 με 2578 π.Χ. ή γύρω στο 2558 με 2532 π.Χ.), το όνομα που η ίδια και ο Ναός της Σφίγγας είχε κατά το Παλαιό Βασίλειο είναι άγνωστο.
Προχωρώντας, αυτό εμφανίζεται ως Hor-em-Akhet (Ώρος (θεός Horus) -στον-Ορίζοντα ή Χάρμακις στην Κοινή, μία άποψη του θεού Ώρου) κατά το Μέσο Βασίλειο, επιβεβαιωμένο ως τέτοιο στην Στήλη των Ονείρων του Φαραώ Thutmose IV (πρώιμος 14ος αιώνας π.Χ.).
Το όνομα Σφίγγα εμφανίστηκε στην Κλασσική Εποχή και ήταν ίσως ελληνικό σε ρίζα ερμηνευόμενο από πολλούς σήμερα ως ‘σφίγγουσα’ από το ρήμα ‘σφίγγω.’ Ωστόσο, μπορεί πολύ πιθανότερα να αποτελεί αντιθέτως μια παρεφθαρμένη ελληνική/κοινή μορφή του αιγυπτιακού ‘Shesep Ankh’ που σημαίνει ‘Ζωντανή Εικόνα,’ με το Ankh να αποτελεί επίσης ένα ιερογλυφικό σύμβολο που που σημαίνει ‘ζωή.’
Το δεύτερο έχει πολύ περισσότερο νόημα καθώς οι σφίγγες θεωρούνταν πνευματικοί φύλακες με φοβερή δύναμη σε ναούς και ιερά μέρη, περάσματα ή ακόμη και ταφικούς χώρους στην αρχαία Αίγυπτο και έτσι πολλοί Φαραώ είχαν τα προσωπά τους αποτυπωμένα στην κορυφή αγαλμάτων φρουρών, φέροντας ένα κάλυμμα κεφαλής επίσης, για να επιδεικνύουν μια στενή σχέση με την ισχυρή ηλιακή θεότητα της Sekhmet, που είχε σώμα λιονταριού.
Οι Σφίγγες ήταν μυθικά πλάσματα που είχαν το σώμα λιονταριού και το κεφάλι ενός ανθρώπου, συνήθως άντρα αλλά θα μπορούσε να είναι και γυναίκα όπως αποδεικνύεται από τη Σφίγγα της Hatshepsut (που στεγάζεται στο Metropolitan Museum of Art, Νέα Υόρκη), που επίσης απέκτησαν τα φτερά του γερακιού καθώς η κουλτούρα τους εξαπλώθηκε στην κοντινή Φοινίκη και την Ασία.
Η γενική συναίνεση μεταξύ των Αιγυπτιολόγων είναι ότι η Μεγάλη Σφίγγα της Γκίζας φέρει ομοιότητα με τον Φαραώ Khafre και θεωρούν ότι κατασκευάστηκε κατά τη διάρκεια της βασιλείας του που διήρκησε γύρω στα 26 χρόνια ((γύρω στο .2603 – 2578 π.Χ. ή γύρω στο.2558 – 2532 π.Χ.), μολονότι ο Μανέθων (Manetho) μιλά για μια πολύ μεγαλύτερη των 66 χρόνων ενώ ο Ηρόδοτος και ο Διόδωρος ο Σικελός συμφωνούν στο σχετικά μικρότερο διάστημα των 56 χρόνων.
Ωστόσο, όπως ο Selim Hassan (Καθηγητής Αιγυπτιολογίας, Πανεπιστήμιο του Κάιρο) επισήμανε, “Λαμβάνοντας τα πάντα υπόψη, φαίνεται ότι πρέπει να πιστώσουμε την ανέγερση αυτού, του πιο όμορφου αγάλματος του κόσμου, στον Khafre, αλλά πάντα με αυτή την επιφύλαξη` ότι δεν υπάρχει η παραμικρή επιγραφή της εποχής που να συνδέει τη Σφίγγα με τον Khafre.”
Παρ’όλα αυτά, η Καταλογική Στήλη (που εκτιμάται να δημιουργήθηκε κατά την 26η Δυναστεία), η οποία ξεθάφτηκε από τον Auguste Mariette γύρω στο 1857, αναφέρει ότι ο πατέρας του Khafre που ήταν ο Φαραώ Khufu (ή Cheops – Χέοπας) τυχαία βρήκε τη Μεγάλη Πυραμίδα που ήταν θαμμένη στην άμμο, υποδεικνύοντας ότι αυτή κατασκευάστηκε σημαντικά νωρίτερα μέσα στο χρόνο αντιθέτως.
Αν και η πλειοψηφία των Αιγυπτιολόγων αμφισβητούν την εγκυρότητά της ως πλαστή, συγκεκριμένα γεγονότα που αναφέρονται σε αυτή δείχνουν να είναι ακριβή αντιθέτως σαν να τους αμφισβητούν από την άλλη πλευρά. Περαιτέρω, ο Gaston Maspero (19ος αιώνας) συμπέρανε ότι η παρουσία του καρτούς του Khafre υποδείκνυε ότι αυτός ήταν υπεύθυνος για την ανασκαφή της Σφίγγας, που συνεπώς προηγούταν χρονικά αυτού και πιθανώς όλης της Δυναστείας του.
Ας σημειωθεί ότι τόσο η Καταλογική όσο και η Ονειρική Στήλη (γύρω στο 1401 π.Χ.) παρουσιάζουν δύο Σφίγγες παρά μόνο μία να στέκονται στο Οροπέδιο της Γκίζας παρεπιπτόντως.
Ένα επιπλέον μυστήριο στην όλη υπόθεση είναι ότι δεν υπάρχει κανένα αρχείο σχετικά με την κατασκευή της Σφίγγας απολύτως, μολονότι υπάρχουν επιγραφές σχετικά με την κατασκευή του συγκροτήματος των πυραμίδων, ενώ οι αρχαίοι Αιγύπτιοι φημιζόντουσαν για τo σχολαστικό τρόπο με τον οποίο κατέγραφαν τα οικοδομικά προγράμματα και έργα.
Κάποιοι ‘περιθωριακοί’ Αιγυπτιολόγοι υποστηρίζουν ότι το πρόσωπο στη Μεγάλη Σφίγγα στην πραγματικότητα δεν είναι του Khafre και ο δικανικός αξιωματικός Ντεντέκτιβ Frank Domingo, που μισθώθηκε από τον Δόκτωρα Robert M. Schoch και τον Αιγυπτιολόγο John Anthony West, συμπέρανε ότι τα παραγόμενα προφίλ του προσώπου επάνω στη Μεγάλη Σφίγγα και ενός αγάλματος του Khafre δεν ταιριάζουν.
Η Σφίγγα, δυστυχώς, έχει χάσει τη μύτη της το οποίο αποδίδεται από κάποιους σε μπάλες κανονιών από τους στρατιώτες του Ναπολέοντα που τη χρησιμοποιούσαν ως στόχο για εξάσκηση, μολονότι σχέδια του Frederic Louis Norden δεκαετίες νωρίτερα δείχνουν τη μύτη να απουσιάζει ήδη, και κατά άλλους στους Mamluks, ένα μεσαιωνικό Ισλαμικό Καλιφάτο και μετέπειτα Σουλτανάτο που εκτείνεται μεταξύ του 1250 και 1517 μ.Χ., ως αποτέλεσμα εικονοκλαστικών επιθέσεων σε μνημεία.
Αυτή (η Σφίγγα) εμφανώς έφερε και ένα εθιμοτυπικό φαραονικό γένι που ήταν πιθανώς μια κατοπινή προσθήκη που τώρα έχει χαθεί επίσης.
Υπάρχει μια μοναδική (θηλυκή) Σφίγγα που αναφέρεται στη λεγόμενη ελληνική μυθολογία, αποκαλούμενη ως ‘Φιξ’ από τον Ησίοδο, η οποία φρουρούσε την είσοδο προς τις αρχαίες Θήβες στη Βοιωτία, οι οποίες ιδρυθηκαν από το Φοίνικα Κάδμο και πήραν το όνομα της αντίστοιχης Αιγυπτιακής πόλης ως τιμή στον πατέρα του Αγένορα, και που ρωτούσε τους διερχόμενους γρίφους τους οποίους έπρεπε να απαντήσουν διαφορετικά το τίμημα θα μπορούσε να είναι η ίδια τους η ζωή.
Η Φιξ στην πραγματικότητα καλέσθηκε πιο πιθανώς από την Ήρα από την μακρινή της πατρίδα την Αιθιοπία (νομίζω ότι ο Ηρόδοτος αναφέρει την Αίγυπτο σε αυτό το ζήτημα), σύμφωνα με το θρύλο, ως μια μορφή τιμωρίας για τις Θήβες μέχρι που τελικά νικηθηκε από τον Οιδίποδα, που απάντησε το γρίφο, προς το θάνατό της.
Ο Ρωμαίος Πλίνιος ο Πρεσβύτερος (23 ή 24 με 79 μ.Χ.) ανέφερε ότι η Αιθιοπια παρήγαγε πολλές σφίγγες με σκούρα μαλλιά και στήθη το οποίο υποστηρίζεται από αρχαιολογικά ευρήματα.
Dougga or Thugga (Punic and Lybico-Berber TBGG) was a small ancient town located on an elevated plateau out in the countryside commanding the valley of Oued Khalled below near Téboursouk in what is nowadays northern Tunisia, regarded as the best preserved Roman small town in north Africa.
Name and foundation
The deep past of the town is not quite that clear but was apparently founded around the 6th century BC likely by the Punics (western Phoenicians) under the name TBGG (meaning something like ‘on the top level’), probably drawing on a Berber word, that signified its naturally strong defensive setting.
It was adopted as Thugga, apparently pronounced as ‘tuga,’ in Latin when the Romans later came along to take command where the current Berber form for it is either Dugga, where the English variation apparently comes from, or Tugga.
Could Thugga be the city of Tocae?
Some historians identify Thugga with the ancient city of Tocae, portrayed as “of beautiful grandeur” by Diodorus of Cicily, that was captured by a force of tyrant Agathocles of Syracuse in his campaigns in north Africa during extended warfare against Carthage towards the late 4th century BC.
All the same, Tocae feels like a Latin name of plural form indicating a group of settlements/districts under it that can hardly be met by small Thugga, therefore that suggestion looks quite shaky.
Numidian or Punic town?
A temple (built 139 BC) dedicated to king Masinissa, who followed largely pro-Roman policies, beneath the later Roman forum spells a Numidian presence from the late third century BC on although the discovery of both Libyan and neo-Punic inscriptions has posed questions over the extent thereof.
For that matter, Punic shophets (magistrates) appear to have remained in place and function well into the Roman era in several cities and towns, Thugga included, which indicates that Punic presence and influence didn’t cease after the fall of Carthage.
The Punic mark on the town is further underlined by a sanctuary dedicated to Ba’al Hammon, the supreme god of Carthage and the Punic, while the bilingual Numidian and Libyco-Punic inscription found in the notable Mausoleum of Atban substantially helped decipher the Numidian alphabet.
(Roman) fortifications
Defence of the town was bolstered up by the Romans in the shape of the ridge of the Fossa Regia (or Fosse Scipio), the initial part of the Limes Africanus (Roman fortified southern borders) constructed in 146 BC, to the east albeit its principal purpose was to stake out the lands of the newly founded Roman province against those of the ally Kingdom of Numidia.
Recent archaeological findings have also toppled earlier theories that the Numidian town and the Roman settlement in the area were separate, in fact they sort of overlapped, and that the surrounding walls were Numidian whereas they were actually constructed by the Romans during late antiquity.
Roman era
Once the Romans took over, the town was granted indigenous status but soon received an adjacent community (pagus) of Roman colonists under separate authorities apiece.
Yet, the two gradually integrated and during the reign of Marcus Aurelius (second century AD) Thugga was granted Roman Law that saw shophets obtain Roman citizenship outright and citizens similar rights.
That said, it was early next century (205 AD) under the reign of emperor Septimius Severus that the two communities merged into a single municipality, as well as given latitude from Carthage’s jurisdiction, before Thugga eventually obtained status of a Roman colony itself under emperor Gallienus decades later.
Further assets that surfaced in the town were the Capitol, the Roman Theatre (apparently built between 168 and 169 AD) as well as the temples of Saturn and June Caelestis that convey the flourish of the Roman time.
The Roman theatre
The well preserved ancient theatre of Thugga was built by the Romans between 168 and 169 AD, commissioned by Marcius Quadratus, and lay on the eastern side of the small but elegant town, facing south.
Despite a relatively small local population (roughly 5000 people), the theatre boasted a capacity of over 3500 spectators and remains operable even in our days hosting the yearly local international festival.
Tutankhamun (c. 1341 – 1323 BC), or alternatively Tutankhamen, was the antepenultimate Pharaoh of the Eighteenth Dynasty (Dynasty XVIII), or first Dynasty of the New Kingdom, that ascended the throne at a mere nine years old to reign until his very death at the young age of eighteen in ancient Egypt.
Lineage
He was most likely son of his predecessor Pharaoh Akhenaten (reigning c. 1353 – 1336 or c. 1351 – 1334 BC) and grandson of Pharaoh Amenhotep III (or the Magnificent, ruling between 1386 and 1349 or 1388 and late 1351/early 1350 BC) whilst his Great Royal Wife was his half sister Ankhesenamun, who was apparently (maybe even as many as seven years) older than him.
That said, his likely eldest brother Smenkhkare squeezed in a relatively short stint (1335 – 1334 BC) and female co-regent Neferneferuaten a further two years (1334 -1332 BC) at the helm in between Akhenaten and Tutankhamun himself shaping a second and third Pharaoh respectively at the end of the apostate so-called Amarna Period.
All the same, Tutankhamun’s mother wasn’t his apparent father’s Great Royal Wife famed Nefertiti but rather a female of unknown identity dubbed as ‘the Younger Lady,’ quite likely a daughter of Amenhotep III and his own first lady Tiye.
Tutankhamun’s name etymology
Tutankhamun’s name breaks down as Tut-ankh-Amun which very likely means ‘Tut is the breath of life/life/soul of Amun’ apparently on account of his actions and steps to restore Amun and the other traditional deities/cults in force during his reign following the radical reforms of his predecessor and apparent father Akhenaten, who suppressed them to establish a sole god in Aten (hence the second component of his name), in ancient Egypt.
The alternative form Tutankhamen, where Amen is a variation of Amun, also breaks down and spells likewise. For that matter, his original name was Tutankhaten, related to Aten, but after he assumed kingship at a young age he switched it to Tutankhamun (probably in the third year of his reign) so as to distance himself from Akhenaten’s ways as well as further endorsing his own religious policies.
Likewise, his half sister and royal wife Ankhesenpaaten, a daughter of Akhenaten with Nefertiti, changed her name to Ankhesenamun towards the same purposes along the way of their marriage. Actually, Tutankhamun was among few Pharaohs that were venerated as deities during their lifetime, with temples of his cult built as far as Kawa and Faras down in Nubia, as most would enjoy this privilege posthumously.
Policies, reforms and foreign affairs
Amongst his policies and reforms, the royal court moved away from Amarna, a new city built by predecessor Akhenaten as his capital, to settle back in Memphis around the fourth year of Tutankhamun’s reign while Thebes soon recaptured the prestige of principal religious hub now that Amun was reinstated as supreme god of Egypt.
Tutankhamun further saw a restoration process underway over monuments damaged during the Amarna Period and braced up the orders of priests of the major cults of Amun and Ptah as well as inaugurating building projects that involved laying out of the sphinx avenue leading to the temple of Mut at Karnak and applying the finishing touches to the decorations on the entrance colonnade of Amenhotep III at the Luxor Temple.
On top of the above, he also successfully sought to restore diplomatic relations with foreign kingdoms, neglected by Amarna, and in particular the Hurrian-speaking Mitanni in the Levant although he didn’t quite succeed to evade warfare against the likes of the Nubians and Asiatics in the end despite his pains.
Due to the young of his age, Tutankhamun most likely ruled assisted by a retinue of advisers that featured Ay and General Horemheb, who eventually succeeded him in that order as the last two pharaohs of the Eighteenth Dynasty but also usurped many of his projects, especially the latter.
Tutankhamun’s death
The young pharaoh probably died through a combination of health issues and a broken leg compounded by malaria, though there has been much debate over that, and was buried in an unusually small burial place for his stature – maybe down to his premature death.
Tutankhamun’s tomb, burial treasures and discovery
However, combined with the fact that it came covered in debris during the construction of the nearby tombs of Ramesses V amd Ramesses VI later, that turned fortunate for Tutankhamun’s burial as it lay low and screened from the eyes of potential robbers and plunderers for thousands of years to retain its treasures, comprising over 5000 artefacts, almost intact until discovered by British Egyptologist Howard Carter in early November 1922.
Which, in turn, came to render Tutankhamun from a largely overlooked ruler in ancient times into probably the most famous pharaoh of them all in the modern world as fate would have it.
This is the arresting Capitoline Hill of the ancient affluent Roman town of Sbeitla, or Sufetula, that was likely founded during the reign of emperor Vespacian (69-79 AD), originally a fort on the Limes Africanus (southern borders), and stood in what is nowadays north central Tynisia.
The temples of Jupiter, Juno and Minerva on the Capitoline Hill of Sbeitla
The Capitol accommodated separate temples of all three Minerva, Juno and Jupiter, the three major deities of ancient Rome, and featured a forum that is one of the best preserved worldwide today.
Its name is apparently Berber (Sbitla or Seftula) in origin, the etymology unknown, as these parts were inhabited by nomadic tribes before the Romans arrived though Punic (western Phoenicians) presence may have been likely, as the discovery of Punic stelae suggests, in between too.
Sbeitla appears to have prospered especially during the second century AD through the olive industry, facilitated by the climate of the region, but later declined during the watershed of the Roman Empire and the fall of its western part.
The Triumphal Arch of the Tetrarchy (or Diocletian), constructed in the very late third century AD, at Sbeilta (Sufetula)
It fell in the hands of the Vandals around 430 AD and was reclaimed by the Eastern Romans (not ‘Byzantines,’ there was never such a thing) about a century later to enjoy a revival but a thorough defeat of the latter by the Arabs of the Rashidun Caliphate in the fields outside the town, the Battle of Sufetula (647 AD), marked the effective end of Roman rule in the region.
Breaking through History 