The origins of the custom of Bell-Bearers, Greece, in Pan

There is a particular custom observed in several places around modern Greece where men get up as Satyrs or Bell-Bearers⁽¹⁾ (picture), many times ram-formed, to pour into and roam the streets around displaying a lustful behaviour and strong sexual suggestiveness during the Carnival (late winter).

It is actually mainly practised over the last Sunday or weekend of the Carnival, albeit there could be exceptions, and particularly over insular places such as Chios, Naxos, Ikaria, Lesbos and Skyros whilst it is also found in the region of Chalchidiki on the mainland.

Although there is awareness that the tradition is very old with roots in deep antiquity, in some instances erroneously viewed as medieval nonetheless, I would say that it is evident that its meaning and what it illustrates has been lost in time and is practised more out of a ‘blurry memory’ of the long past.

What these dressed up men actually imitate is none else than the Pans or Paniskoi⁽²⁾ who were copies (replicas) that Pan, ram-form god from Anatolia and most likely coming from the Phrygians, would multiply into that would roam around displaying exactly this lustful behaviour seeking to engage the erotic attention of the nymphs.

Pan was a god of the wild, the pasture, shepherds and flocks, woods and wooden glens as well as rustic music, a companion of the nymphs at that, as he was associated with the earth and nature along with all activities connected with them` just as was his name that didn’t originally mean ‘all’ (mainly used as a prefix) but has wound up so through time.

For that matter, he was considered older than the Olympians (although ‘Olympians’ here apparently regards the Olympus, a name that comes therefrom, of Phrygia) while he might as well have entertained even deeper roots in ancient Egypt, where he was known as Mendes whilst identified/associated with their own very ancient gods (Per-)Banebdjedet και Min.

Looking closer, I would argue that the name Mendes doesn’t seem Egyptian but instead strikes me most likely as Phrygian breaking down as ‘ΜΗΝ’ (voiced as ‘men’) ‘ΔΕ(Υ)Σ’ (rendered as ‘de(u)s,’ meaning ‘god’), the Phrygian lunar god that presided over the (lunar) months and whose name shapes the deep origin of the Greek word ‘μήνας’ (month).

Which, in turn, implies a connection between Men (MHN) and Pan, who was connected by means of a love affair with goddess of the moon Selene⁽³⁾. It is particularly intriguing, come to that, the great similarity in the names of Phrygian god Men and Egyptian Min⁽⁴⁾, whose nature and overall outlook resembles that of Pan a great deal.

The Phrygian identity of Pan before he crossed the Aegean and came over to the southern Balkans can be further established since he was associated with Phrygian supreme goddess Cybele, attested by Pindar as such for instance, as well as among the retinue of Phrygian god Sabazios who was venerated as main deity in many places around nowadays Greece including Athens (as Zeus).

There shouldn’t be ruled out, however, that the god could have born deeper origins with the Caucones⁽⁵⁾, a very ancient Caucasian peoples of Anatolia, whom the Phrygians conquered at some point when they started shaping up as a major force in the region.

Especially seeing that the emergence of Pan in the wider area of nowadays Greece was regarded to have been in the region of Arcadia, which was mainly occupied by them (Caucones) and Pelasgians (descendants of Egyptian, Lybian, and maybe even Phoenician, settlers).

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(1) Dubbed as ‘koudounatoi,’ ‘koudounades’ or ‘koudounoforoi’ in Greek.

(2) The outlook of the ‘Bell-Bearers’ definitely fits that of Pan.

(3) Selene was also called MHNH, rendered as ‘Me`ne,’ which shapes the feminine form of the name of Phrygian lunar god Men (MHN) and therefore looks most definitely Phrygian, very likely her original name for that matter.

Furthermore, she bore the epithet ‘Pan-dia’ (voiced as ‘Pan Dia’) or ‘Pan-deia’ (rendered as ‘Pan-dea’) where ‘dia/deia’ simply spells ‘goddess’ and the first component ‘Pan’ seems to connect her with the god, on the one hand, as well as nature that he represented, on the other.

Which, by implication, come to further associate the two gods between them, who might have been the same.

(4) His name was likely pronounced as ‘Menu’ or ‘Men’ for that matter.

(5) Caucones were responsible for carrying over and spreading the cult of Hermes in what is nowadays Greece come to that.

Το Μοτίβο/Σύμβολο του Μαιάνδρου

Ένα διακοσμητικό μοτίβο πολύ γνωστό στην αρχιτεκτονική και την κεραμική από την αρχαία εποχή είναι αυτό του Μαιάνδρου (ή Ελληνικής Κλείδας) που διακρίνεται από μια γεωμετρική κυματοειδή ροή από τεμνόμενες γραμμές και (συνήθως ορθές) γωνίες, αλλά μπορεί να εμφανίζεται και σε σπειροειδή μορφή ή και σε Vitruvian Helix.

Εμφανίζεται ιδιαίτερα μάλιστα στην αρχαιότητα στη διακόσμηση ζωοφώρων σε ναούς και δημόσια κτίρια, σε μωσαϊκά πατώματα αλλά και τοιχογραφίες καθώς επίσης και σε διακοσμητικές ‘ταινίες’ στην αγγειοπλαστική.

Αν και γενικότερα θεωρείται ως ένα κλασσικό ελληνικό πρότυπο, η αλήθεια είναι ότι η ιστορία του δείχνει να είναι αρκετά παλαιότερη και εμφανίζεται σε πολλές διαφορετικές περιοχές, κάποιες από τις οποίες μπορεί να μην ήρθαν και ποτέ σε επαφή στα βάθη του χρόνου.

Έτσι, εμφανίζεται πολύ νωρίτερα σε χάλκινα αντικείμενα της Δυναστείας των Shang στην Κίνα (κατά προσέγγιση 1600 με 1045 π.Χ.), όπως και στους Αζτέκους στην ‘απομονωμένη’ για μεγάλο μέρος της ιστορίας Αμερικανική ήπειρο, αλλά ακόμη και στην αρχαία Αίγυπτο όπως και στους Ετρούσκους (ελαφρά νωρίτερα από ό,τι στο χώρο της σημερινής Ελλάδας μάλιστα).

Προέλευση του ονόματος

Το δε όνομα του μοτίβου ως Μαίανδρος προέρχεται από την Ανατολία και τον ομώνυμο ποταμό-θεό των Κάρων, όπως και τον αντίστοιχο ποταμό που έρρεε στη χώρα τους με αντίσχοιχο κυματοειδές σχήμα, αλλά ίσως και των Λυδών ενώ δεν έχει ελληνική ετυμολογία.

Ενδεχομένως να ανήκε και στους ποταμούς-θεούς των Φρυγών δεδομένου ότι ο ποταμός πήγαζε στα υψίπεδα της Φρυγίας ενώ η μορφή και η δομή του ονόματός του συμφωνούν απόλυτα με αυτές της γλώσσας τους.

Αναφέρεται επίσης και ο Μαίανδρος, που πιστεύω ότι λανθασμένα συγχέεται με τον ποταμό θεό, που ενδεχομένως ως βασιλιάς είτε των Κάρων ή των Λυδών (δεν προσδιορίζεται) έκανε πόλεμο ενάντια στους Πεσσινούντινες (κάτοικοι της Πεσσινούς⁽¹⁾; ) και ορκίστηκε στη Μητέρα των Θεών (Κυβέλη) ότι αν νικούσε θα θυσίαζε το πρώτο πρόσωπο που θα του έδινε συγχαρητήρια.

Όπως το ήθελε η μοίρα, οι πρώτοι που ήρθαν να τον συγχαρούν στην επιστροφή του ήταν η μητέρα του, η αδερφή του και ο γιος του. Από τη θλίψη του, αυτοκτόνησε πέφτοντας στον ποταμό ο οποίος πήρε το όνομά του έτσι κατά αυτή την εκδοχή. Όπου το όλο ‘πλαίσιο’ αυτής της ιστορίας θα έλεγα ότι συνιστά μάλλον κάποιον από τη Λυδία⁽²⁾.

Σημασία/Συμβολισμός του μοτίβου του Μεάνδρου

Αν και ο Μαίανδρος (μοτίβο) φέρεται ως σύμβολο νίκης και ενότητας από πολλούς, προσωπικά αντιθέτως θεωρώ ότι συμβολίζει την αδιάσπαστη και ζωτική σύνδεση μεταξύ της γυναίκας (ως μητέρας) και του άνδρα – χωρίς το ένα δεν μπορεί να συνεχίσει να υπάρχει το άλλο.

Κάτι που ανανακλάται στο ίδιο το όνομα, προφερόμενο πιο σωστά μάλλον ως ‘Μαϊάντρος’ στα ελληνικά (όπως θα ήταν και στα φρυγικά), το οποίο αναλύεται ως ‘Μαϊα-‘ και ‘-(α)νδρος’ με προφανή καταγωγή από την Ανατολία και θα μπορούσε να είναι κάλλιστα Φρυγικό, Λυδικό ή Λούβιο με το πρώτο να έχει ένα προβάδισμα.

Ετυμολογία

Από τη μία πλευρά, το πρώτο συστατικό που προφερόταν ως ‘Μαϊά,’ χωρίς ελληνική ετυμολογία, είναι κτητικό επίθετο που σίγουρα προερχόταν από μονοσύλλαβο ουσιαστικό το οποίο λογικά θα ήταν το φρυγικό ‘ΜΑ,’⁽³⁾ που σήμαινε ‘Μητέρα’ και ήταν άλλο ένα όνομα της Κυβέλης που εμφανιζόταν και ως ‘ΜΑ ΖΕΥΣ’ (ως υπέρτατη όλων των θεών).

Η έννοιά του είναι κάτι σαν ‘αυτή που είναι μητέρα’ και ακολουθεί μια χαρακτηριστική φρυγική δομή με άλλα παραδείγματα όπως το ‘ΓΚΑΙΑ’ από το ‘ΓΗ,’ το ‘ΝΙΚΑΙΑ’ από το ‘ΝΙΚΗ’και το ‘ΕΚΑΤΑΙΑ’ από το ‘ΕΚΑΤΗ.’ Στην αρχή, αυτά τα κτητικά επίθετα φαίνεται να αφορούσαν θεές αλλά αργότερα επεκτάθηκαν (και κάποια πήραν και άλλες σημασίες μέσα στο χρόνο).

Το δε ‘ΑΝΔΡΟ(Σ)⁽⁴⁾, προφερόμενο ως ‘αντρό(ς),’ εμφανίζεται είετε ως πρόθεμα ή επίθεμα σε διάφορες ανατολίτικες γλώσσες (όπως και στα Ετρουσκικά) με το ‘ΑΝΔΡΟΣ’ πολύ πιθανώς να αποτελεί τη γενική του Φρυγικού ‘ΑΝΑΡ,’ από το οποίό προέρχεται το ‘ΑΝΗΡ’ (προφερόμενο ως ‘ανέρ’ από τους Έλληνες).

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(1) Οι αρχαίοι συγγραφείς θεωρούσαν την Πεσσινούς ως το μεγαλύτερο λατρευτικό κέντρο της Κυβέλης αλλά και την ουσιαστική πρωτεύουσα του Φρυγικού βασιλείου υπό τον Μίδα (αναφέρονται, ωστόσο, αρκετοί Φρύγες βασιλείς με αυτό το όνομα).

(2) Δεδομένου ότι το γεγονός που περιγράφεται δείχνει αρκετά παλιό, ίσως δεν θα’πρεπε να αποκλειστεί το ενδεχόμενο να ήταν και Φρύγας.

(3) Το ‘Μα’ αποτελεί επίσης το πρώτο συστατικό του ‘ΜΑ-ΤΑΡ’ (Φρυγικά) και του ‘Ma-ter’ (Λούβια) που επίσης σημαίνουν ‘μητέρα,’ με μακρινή ρίζα το Πρωτο-Ινδο-Ευρωπαϊκό ‘méh₂tēr.’

(4) Ιδιαίτερα ενδιαφέρον είναι ότι ‘ΑΝΔΡΟ’ (προφερόμενο ως ‘άντρο’) ήταν το όνομα του θώρακα και της ασπίδας που έφερε η πανοπλία της Αθηνάς, η οποία δεν ήταν τίποτα παρά ο τίτλος/επίθετο της Κυβέλης ως προστάτιδας της Αθήνας.

The inscription on Midas Monument, Phrygian Valley in Eskişehir (Turkey) Part I – ΜΙΔΑΙ

As already presented, the Midas Monument is a high rock-cut relief in the shape of a pedimented temple front that lies on the cliff side of the citadel of the ancient Phrygian city of Mida (Yazılıkaya in Turkish), province of Eskişehir in northwest nowadays Turkey.

The monument bears a dedication on the upper left hand side in Old Phrygian by Ates, son of Arkias, that has “ΜΙΔΑΙ ΛΑFΑΓΤAEI FΑΝAKTEI ΕΔΑΕΣ” to the effect of ‘Midai (She of Mida, Cybele) overlord and leader of people dwells/is present here,’ likely fashioned in the late eighth century BC.

It was initially erroneously taken for King Midas’s tomb, hence its name, due to the presence of the name ‘Midai’ in the above mentioned inscription, yet the latter eventually turned out to be yet another epithet of Phrygian supreme goddess Cybele, apparently as patron and protector of the city.

For that matter, the site served as a sanctuary of Cybele herself where a statue of the goddess would be placed in the entrance-shaped niche at the bottom of the monument, potentially representing a ‘spiritual doorway,’ during rituals or ceremonies.

So let’s probe into this inscription breaking it down part by part.

ΜΙΔΑΙ

To begin with, I am very confident that the city of Mida followed the same naming pattern as other ancient cities that lay under the aegis of Cybele whether Mycenaean and later Achaean, such as Athenai (Athens) and Thebai (Thebes), or also very likely other Phrygian counterparts, such as Kolossai or Kelainai, to the effect of ‘Midai.’

Along these lines, Cybele herself would take up the name of each city that evoked her as a protector by means of an epithet in a form that would spell ‘She/The Lady of (name of the city).’

Thereby Cybele carried the epithet ‘Αθηνή’ (Atḗnē), spelling ‘She/Lady of Athens,’ ‘Θηβή’ (Tḗbē), meaning ‘She/Lady of Thebes,’ or ‘Μυκηνή’ (Mukḗnē), meaning ‘She/Lady of Mycenae,’ as an instance.

The reasoning behind the plural names of ancient cities is far from clear but, looking at the form ‘Midai’ (Cybele) for Mida in the inscription in discussion, I am beginning to speculate that the suffix ‘-ai,’ voiced as ‘a-i’ (very similar in both sound and function to later Latin ‘-ae’), may have not had a plural function initially but rather shaped a feminine possessive form of the name referred to.

The above argument can be supported by Phrygian male patronyms such as ‘ΑΡΚΙΕϝΑΙΣ,’ meaning ‘son of ΑΡΚΙΑΣ,’ where the respective suffix ‘-ais’ (voiced as ‘a-i-s’) comes at the end of the possessive adjective, corresponding to the female ‘-ai’ above.

Therefore, the name ‘ΜΙΔΑΙ’ in the inscription most certainly shapes a feminine possessive form spelling ‘She/Lady of Mida’ in this case. By implication, ‘ΑΘΗΝΗ’ (Atḗnē) would have been ‘ΑΤΕΝΑΙ/ΑΘΗΝΑΙ’⁽¹⁾ and ‘ΘΗΒΗ’ (Tḗbē) would have been ‘ΤΕΒΑΙ/ΘΗΒΑΙ’⁽¹⁾ respectively as epithets of Cybele in earlier stages.

As the letter ‘H’⁽²⁾ with a similar sound (long ‘e’) came along, as well as other developments, the use of the suffix ‘-ai’ could then have been likely gradually delegated to eventually help form plural feminine nouns later.

Many modern historians suggest that there were sisterhoods of priestesses devoted to Cybele⁽³⁾ bearing her epithet, such as ‘Athenai’ or ‘Thebai,’ in the respective cities which may have eventually influenced such a switch in function into plural of the suffix ‘-ai’ with female names.

Therefore, ancient cities under the aegis of Cybele seem to have eventually ended up carrying the respective (plural) name of the sisterhood of priestesses dedicated to her therein.

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(1) Same pronunciation as ‘Atena-‘i’ and ‘Teba-‘i’ respectively.

(2) Eventually, ‘H’ supplanted ‘ai’ as suffix in feminine possessive forms in tongues/dialects such as Phrygian and Ionian (which carries a profound Phrygian platform).

(3) More precisely, modern historians say that it is the very same goddess in all those ancient cities, which adds up.

Cybele is clearly the protectress of Athens and most likely Thebes, venerated as principal goddess, so it follows that she would have been of Mycenae as well.

Zeus is a Phrygian name (epithet)

As I have maintained time and again, the name ‘Zeus’ does not constitute a theonym (a god’s proper name) nor is equivalent to a specific god but an epithet and a title applied to the respective king god in a polytheistic system or over a geographical area in ancient times.

In ancient societies, either out of respect or fear or social demand (or a combination thereof), people would evade to invoke a god or goddess directly by one’s name and employ instead an honorary epithet or title that conveyed a specific trait of one.

The hand of Sabazios

Phrygian Sabazios

‘Zeus’ (ΖΕΥΣ, ‘mighty,’ ‘ heavenly,’ ‘divine’) shapes a variation of ‘Deus’ (ΔΕΥΣ) deriving both on Proto-Indo-European ‘Dyēus’ (sky god) that I long speculated that it emerges in the Phrygian language probing the name of Phrygian god Sabazios.

Sabazios (ΣΑΒΑΖΙΟΣ, voiced as ‘savazios’ in Common/Koine) was pronounced as ‘sabazdios’ in Phrygian, the same way as in the later Hellenic tongues, and is the Zeus that was venerated in Athens, among others, as I have said again.

Furthermore, he is the real god of wine that was venerated widely across the Aegean, Anatolia (Minor Asia) and a large part of the Balkans and not Dionysus, which is also a title and not a theonym, for whom he is erroneously confused.

For that matter, his name breaks down as ‘Saba-‘⁽¹⁾, a product (syrup) made from grape must in wine-making (used as a word in the very same manner by the Hellenes) and the second component ‘-zdios’ spelling ‘(king) god’ in a genitive form.

I have to add here that Dionysus (voiced as ‘Dionusos’ by the Hellenes) actually originates in the also Phrygian ‘ΔΙΟΝΣΙΝ’ (pronounced as ‘diunsin,’ which appears in the form ‘ΔΙΟΥΝΣΙΝ’ in neo-Phrygian).

Now, for ‘Sabazdios’ (Sabazios) to bear as second component the form ‘-zdios’ (zios) in genitive that means that in the nominative the latter would be either ‘Zdeus’ (Zeus) or ‘Zdis’ (Zis), as the second appears as a principal deity among the Thracians who show substantial influences by the Phrygians religionwise.

And the evidence that it is the former (‘zdeus,’ Zeus) arrived when I first stumbled on the Phrygian deity Ma Zeus and about a couple of weeks later on the also Phrygian god Ti Zeus.

The above mentioned appear in that form in Phrygian inscriptions, by means of further evidence, as well as other ancient and early medieval sources while the use of ‘Zeus’ clearly spells that it is an epithet/title and not a theonym (proper name of a god).

Ti Zeus and Ma Zeus

Ti Zeus (ΤΙ ΖΕΥΣ) is a storm/weather sky god that actually proves to be none else than the Olympian Zeus we are taught about while he is also associated with further Phrygian god Bas (ΒΑΣ, ‘bas,’ most likely bearing the sense of ‘guardian’) even though the latter may as well shape simply yet another epithet of the former.

As regards Ma Zeus, I personally reckon that it is not lunar god Mas (ΜΑΣ) or Men (ΜΗΝ, pronounced as ‘men’) as widely thought around as he doesn’t seem to be a king god, bearing actually the epithet ‘ΔΕΥΣ/ΔΕΣ’ (god) instead, but regards supreme Phrygian goddess Cybele (pronounced as ‘kubele’), who seems to have also carried the name ‘Ma’ as mother (of all gods).

Which, in turn, means that ‘Zeus’ wasn’t employed only for gods but for goddesses as well⁽²⁾. Albeit a section of (modern) historians regard that Ma was a different goddess as she was venerated under that name in Cappadocia, the truth is that, as it often happens, that she is apparently none else than Cybele again worshipped under that appellation with some additional traits suited to the fabric of the region.

On top of that, the argument that Ma is also a war goddess gets balanced out by Cybele being often portrayed on a chariot drawn by lions carrying a bird of prey while escorted by Nike which demonstrate that she bore herself profound elements of a warlike goddess.

After all, for her to be protectress of the very city-state of Athens, among many others, she ought to have carried this aspect – and as it turns out ‘Athena’ wasn’t a name of a goddess but epithet of Cybele herself as protectress of the city (more in a forthcoming special post)!

Let there be noted that Zeus was pronounced as ‘zdeus’ both in Phrygian, where it also appears later in the form ‘Zes’ (ΖΕΣ), and the Hellenic dialects that are much later. Accordingly, Deus (ΔΕΥΣ, ‘god’) is also an epithet, further presenting the form Des (ΔΕΣ), that originates in the Phrygian language as well.

The Phrygian structure

It is of particular interest the form and structure of the names of Phrygian gods as the epithet/title always follows the theonym which evokes the word order in French (e.g., voiture noir).

Actually, there could be a link between the Franks (nowadays French) and the Phrygian, even though modern historians are quick to dismiss that, as I keep stumbling on pieces of potential evidence that suggest it.

Among others, it comes particularly intriguing, to me at least, that for instance there appears the word ‘ΓΑΛΛΟΙ’ in the Phrygian language, probably pronounced as ‘Galloj’⁽³⁾ quite reminiscent of ‘Gaulois(e)’), which was the name of the priests of Cybele.

Finally, as an aside, let me add that the word ‘μήνας’ (minas, ‘month) in modern Greek comes from the name of above mentioned Phrygian god ΜΗΝ (‘men’), borrowed in this very form in the later Hellenic dialects, which further carries this sense.

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(1) It appears, as a great surprise, in the very same form and meaning in the modern English language.

(2) Cybele seems to have originally been hermaphrodite which may account for her being attributed the title ‘Zeus.’

(3) Note also Roman ‘Galloi/Galli’ for the Gauls.

Group of Zeus and Ganymede, ancient Olympia

It was when I stumbled on this particular artefact, the terracotta statue group of storm god Zeus abducting Trojan hero Ganymede, that it suddenly struck me that Olympian Zeus is no other than Phrygian king god and Olympian Ti Zeus.

Note, in particular, the rustic outfit, barefoot into the bargain, and the wooden staff of Zeus which are characteristic of the Phrygians and their ways of life as well as many of their deities.

Sabazios, the other king god of the Phrygians, and Cybele, the supreme Phrygian goddess, are also depicted or accounted bearing a wooden staff among others.

There has to be said, furthermore, that ancient historian Pausanias calls Trojans as Phrygians in his account of the Trojan Horse and the fall of Troy in the legendary Trojan War.

Considered to have been crafted around 480 – 470 BC, the statue group came to light in fragments initially in 1878 and then in 1938 in the southwestern and western area of the ancient stadium of Olympia, pieced gradually together to a substantial degree.

(See the extensive post on Ti Zeus for more)

Ti Zeus, the Phrygian god behind Olympian Zeus

Attested in several inscriptions and sources, Ti Zeus may be scarcely known in our time but shaped a major Phrygian deity in his day that was actually a king storm/sky god, namely wielding thunder and lightning as well as dwelling high in a holy mountain.

The abduction of Ganymede by Zeus

Name

His name comprises the theonym (proper name) of Ti (likely earlier Te), which apparently means ‘god’ (or even ‘lord’), along with the epithet/title ‘Zeus’⁽¹⁾ (pronounced as ‘zdeus’) that is very much certain of Phrygian origin spelling ‘heavenly, mighty,’ customarily attached to a king god in a geographical area or a religious polytheistic system.

The female equivalent of  Tiϝeia, meaning ‘goddess’ (or ‘mistress’), spelt with a wau (digamma) in the middle indicates that the name is very old while Ti appears also later as Ti(ϝ)-os⁽²⁾, with a likely (earlier) further version of Te(ϝ)os, in Old Phrygian which is most likely the root of the word ‘theos’ (‘θεός’⁽³⁾, meaning ‘god’ in Hellenic) later.

His name also appears in the form of Ti Jes, with Jes (/’zəs/) a later form of Zeus (/zdeus/), in neo-Phrygian towards the late first millennium BC.

Trojan War and Phrygian Olympus

Although his name may not ring a bell to you, Ti Zeus is actually the ‘Zeus’ that appears in the epoch of ‘Iliad’ and the legend of the Trojan War, hence why he seems to favour the defending Trojans, as he watches the battles rage on and weighs up the opposing sides along with the other gods (who may also often interfere in the warfare) from high in the Phrygian holy mountain Olympus.

The Phrygian Olympus, no other than modern Ulu-dağ in Turkey, is the genuine Olympus that commanded a plain view of the Troad and the battlefields beyond, thus shaping the holy mountain referred to by Homer and the other composers of the overall ‘Epic Cycle’ over the Trojan War.

For that matter, the very name Olympus/Olympos (or alternatively Ulympus/Ulympos) is most likely Phrygian itself as there was a very old Phrygian mountain god of that very name, maybe the same as the namesake primordial Oureo (Olympos) in place, who was an early consort of Phrygian supreme goddess Cybele as well as the inventor of the flute and father of the flute-playing Satyrs.

On the other hand, the mount Olympus in Thessaly, nowadays Greece, was originally named Belus⁽⁴⁾ apparently after Phoenician storm god Ba’al or Belu, with Herodotus recounting the legend of Phoenician Cadmus and his men gaining hold of the region, and was very likely renamed when Anatolian speakers later settled about and set up their own gods thereon, as place-names in the vicinity suggest.

Mount Ida

Zeus, namely Ti Zeus, is also mentioned by Homer to watch the battles outside Troy from the even closer outlook of Mount Ida in Phrygia, sacred to Phrygian supreme goddess Cybele, and likely from the altar in place dedicated to him as his birthplace, or hiding place after his birth, on a western foothill, near modern Adatepe, below.

The respective Mount Ida in Crete was named after this mountain and the legend of the birth, or hiding, of (Ti) Zeus therein was carried over following the influx of Hurrians, the ranks of whom the Phrygians may have emerged from, along with other Anatolian peoples to dominate over the island in the second age, starting around 1700 BC, of the so-called Minoan civilization.

(Ti) Zeus was also said to have abducted handsome divine Trojan hero Ganymede⁽⁵⁾, son of Tros founder of Troy, from nearby Mount Ida employing, or transformed himself as, the Eagle (a symbol and personification of Zeus) and taken him up to Olympus (Phrygia) where he made him the formal Cup Bearer, serving nectar and ambrosia, of the gods.

It is quite interesting that Ganymede’s predecessor as Cup Bearer for the gods, goddess Hebe, was also named Ganymeda which suggests she was apparently part of Trojan or Phrygian tradition and origin herself as well.

Quite simply, these were Phrygian and Anatolian legends that came over with the waves of Anatolian speakers that settled in what is now Greece in the second millennium BC and were much later incorporated in the mythology of the Hellenes that emerged out of them.

Eastern Roman references to Ti Zeus

Stephanus of Byzantium⁽⁶⁾ (6^th century AD), an Eastern Roman grammarian and historian, identifies Zeus with Ti (Zeus) and says that according to famed ancient Athenian orator and statesman Demosthenes he was known as Tios in Bithynia (north Anatolia), as further evidence.

Ti Zeus and Bas

Ti Zeus is also associated, even identified, with further Phrygian god Bas (ΒΑΣ) although the latter could be nothing more than yet another epithet for the former to the effect of ‘shining, bright.’

Nevertheless, I personally feel that ‘Bas’ more likely means ‘(divine) guardian/hero,’ thereby also bearing light, and it’s rather a potential similar form of ‘8as’ (‘8ΑΣ’) very likely pronounced as ‘fəs,’ out of the same root that could carry the sense of ‘shining, bright.’

The latter would also have a genitive form of ‘8os’ (voiced as ‘fos’) which would make the very likely root of Hellenic ‘φως’ (light).

The sense of ‘(divine) guardian’ in ‘bas’ could be drawn out of the respective suffix in ‘Cory-bas,’ the singular form of Phrygian Cory-bant(e)s (the priest-guardians of Cybele), for instance.

Here, the first component either refers to the particular crested helmet (corys) they wore as ‘crested helmet guardian’ or even more so means mountain (corys) to the sense of ‘mountain guardian,’ as Corybantes were.

For that matter, the rare letter ‘8’ is rather erroneously given formally as equivalent to ‘B’ in Phrygian as judging by its pronunciation in the few other ancient alphabets that contain it, such as neighbouring Lydian, it is most likely voiced as ‘f’ instead.

The epithet ‘Bagaios’

Ti Zeus seems to also carry the epithet Ba-gaios which may spell ‘earth guardian’ as he resides on (Phrygian) Olympus which was a primordial guardian of the earth as an Oureo (or Oreo).

Furthermore, the structure ‘gaios’ (devoted to/of the earth) recommends a certain feminine form of ‘gaia’ (devoted to/she of the ‘ge’ (ΓΗ), which means ‘earth’) and therefore the origin of the same word that appears in the so-called ‘Homeric Hellenic,’ which is heavily influenced by Luwian and Phrygian.

Ti Zeus, the god behind Olympian Zeus

Working up to a crescendo, Phrygian Ti Zeus is actually the Olympian Zeus celebrated at the ancient Olympic Games in Olympia (modern Greece). Yes, you read that right!

That is actually clearly demonstrated by the multi-figure Late Archaic terracotta statue group displaying Zeus carrying young Ganymede up to mount Olympus that adorned the Olympic complex, dated to around 480 – 470 BC.

As accounted earlier, that is a Phrygian/Anatolian myth that regards Ti Zeus and the abduction of the Trojan Prince to nearby Phrygian Olympus to serve as Cup Bearer for the gods invoked in the statues.

On top of that, Ti Zeus was Olympian anyway as he resided, and presided, among the gods in the Phrygian Olympus.

After all, the very founding of the ancient Olympics lay in the victory of legendary Phrygian Pelops, venerated himself in Olympia, in a chariot race to become king of Pisa, Peloponnese, so that makes perfect sense.

Peloponnese itself was named after him, meaning ‘Pelops’s Island,’ as along with his son Atreus and their line that included the likes of Agamemnon and Menelaus formed the effective second and more powerful Phrygian dynasty of what much later became known as ‘Achaean’ world, a name that also looks as though originating in Anatolia.

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(1) As I have reiterated, ‘Zeus’ is not a theonym (actual name of a god that is) but an epithet meaning ‘heavenly, mighty’ that is of Phrygian origin attributed to a king god in a polytheistic system or a geographical area.

It always followed the theonym in an honourary function as can further be attested in Ma Zeus (apparently Cybele) where the same Phrygian structure was applied with ‘ΔΕΥΣ’ or ‘ΔΕΣ’ (meaning ‘god,’ but not a king one) as occurs in ΜΗΝ ΔΕ(Υ)Σ.

The Hellenes later adopted the epithet in the very same form and pronunciation, as well as the above mentioned structure.

(2) ‘Tios’ was originally the genitive form of ‘Ti’ incidentally.

(3) The letter ‘θ’ was pronounced as aspirated ‘t’ in ancient Hellenic.

(4) Apparently, Thessalian Olympus retained ‘Belus/Belos’ as a second name.

(5) Unlike what is given around, ‘Ganymede’ seems rather likely to mean ‘Beautiful/Beaming (gany-) Prince (mede),’ where the stem ‘gan-‘ exists in Phrygian (possibly spelling ‘craft,’ ‘skill’), but it could also trace all the way back to ancient Sumerian ‘gan’ (‘slave/depended’) to the effect of ‘Slave Prince’ that also fits the profile.

Furthermore, the original form ‘Ganymede’ without a final ‘-s’ falls in line with the early Phrygian formation of nouns.

(6) The attributive ‘of Byzantium’ was apparently attached to him much later.

Πίαω από τη λέξη ‘Χημεία’

Φαντάζομαι ότι όλοι γνωρίζετε τι σημαίνει ‘Χημεία’ και τι αυτή αφορά. Άλλωστε, λίγο πολύ όλοι θα έχετε κάνει το αντίστοιχο μάθημα στο σχολείο, αν όχι και παραπέρα.

Από που, λοιπόν, προέρχεται το όνομα της επιστήμης αυτής και πως αναλύεται; Εδώ υπάρχει μια μεγάλη εκπληξη!

Η λέξη ‘Χημεία,’ λοιπόν, προέρχεται και έχει τις βαθιές της ρίζες στο αρχαίο αιγυπτιακό ‘km.t’ που αποδίδεται κοινώς ως ‘κέμ-ετ’ και σήμαινε ‘μαύρη γη’ σε σχέση με το χώμα που αποτίθονταν και κάλυπτε τις πλημμυρικές ζώνες του ποταμού Νείλου κατά την εποχή των ετήσιων πλημμύρων του⁽¹⁾.

Το χώμα αυτό ήταν εξαιρετικά πλούσιο σε στοιχεία που έκανε τις ‘μαύρες’ αυτές ζώνες πολύ εύφορες και συνεπώς θα έδινε την εντύπωση κάποιου είδους ‘μαγείας’ ιδιαίτερα ευπρόσδεκτης για τους αρχαίους Αιγύπτιους ενώ το όνομα επεκτάθηκε για να χαρακτηρίζει τελικά ακόμη και την ίδια τους τη χώρα ως ‘Κέμ-ετ’ (‘Χώρα της Μαύρης Γης’).

Η πρώτη παρουσία της λέξης km.t φαίνεται να γίνεται τόσο παλιά όσο περίπου το 3100 π.Χ. και την Πρώιμη Δυναστική Περίοδο ενώ ως όνομα για την ίδια την χώρα δείχνει να εμφανίζεται κατά την βασιλεία του Mentuhotep II (2060-2009 π..Χ.) της ΧΙ Δυναστείας και μετάβαση από την Πρώτη Ενδιάμεση Περίοδο στο Μέσο Βασίλειο.

Μάλιστα, από ό,τι καταλαβαίνω, το όνομα ακόμη χρησιμοποιείται για την Αίγυπτο σε περιοχές της Μέσης Ανατολής και που αναλύεται σε ‘km’ (κεμ-), που σημαίνει ‘μαύρο/μαυρίλα,’ και το επίθεμα ‘.t’ (-ετ) που δίνει την έννοια της χώρας/περιοχής στο πρώτο, σε μια δομή που δείχνει σημιτική.

Από την άλλη πλευρά, φαίνεται να υπάρχει μια σύγχυση σε ό,τι αφορά την λέξη ‘χημεία,’ με αρκετά ‘δάνεια’ και ‘αντιδάνεια’ μεταξύ γλωσσών και περιοχών μέσα στους αιώνες, για το ποια ακριβώς ήταν η πορεία της διαμόρφωσής της και πότε πρωτοεμφανίστηκε.

Έτσι, σε άλλες πηγές φαίνεται να πρωτοεμφανίζεται στον 4ο αιώνα μ.Χ. σε μια πραγματεία του Ρωμαίου αστρολόγου και συγγραφέα Julius Firmicus Maternus ως ‘chemyia’ ενώ σε άλλες (αλλά λιγότερες) ότι εμφανίστηκε αρχικά γύρω στα τέλη του 4ου αιώνα π.Χ. ως ‘χυμεία’ στην Κοινή από το πρωτύτερο αρχαιο-ελληνικό ‘χύμα,’ με το τελευταίο ως συμφυρμό του ‘Χημία’ (Αίγυπτος) και ‘χημία’ (μαύρη γη).

Ωστόσο, η δεύτερη εκτίμηση δεν δείχνει ιδιαίτερα ‘στέρεη’ για κάποιους σημαντικούς λόγους όπως:

α) η κατάληξη ‘-ία’ στην περίπτωση του ‘Χημία’ (Αίγυπτος, η χώρα) θα ήταν ‘-εία΄ (γη, χώρα) ως προς τη μορφή ‘Χημεία’ και προφορά ‘Κεμέα’ ενώ στο ‘χημία’ (μαύρη γη) η προφορά θα ήταν ‘κέμια’ αντιθέτως (και έτσι θα διακρίνονταν και μεταξύ τους).

β) Το ‘χύμα,’ στα αρχαία ελληνικά προφερόμενο ως ‘κούμα,’ προερχόταν από το προ-ελληνικό ‘k(h)uma’ (δασυνόμενο ‘κ’) που είναι πιθανώς Λούβιο.

γ) To km.t (κέμ-ετ) φαίνεται ότι πολύ παλαιότερα προφερόταν ως ‘κούμ-ατ’ που υποδεικνύει την αντίστοιχη εξέλιξη του πρώτου συνθετικού από ‘χυμ-‘ σε ‘χημ-‘ (προφερόμενα ως ‘κουμ-‘ και ‘κεμ-‘ αντίστοιχα) και όχι το αντίθετο (βλέπε επίσης β παραπάνω).

Θα πρέπει να πούμε ότι φαίνεται ότι υπήρχε αιγυπτιακή λέξη ‘khēmia’ (‘κέμια’)⁽²⁾ που σήμαινε ‘μετατροπή της γης,’ δεδομένου μάλιστα ότι ο Ρωμαίος αυτοκράτορας Diocletian αναφέρεται σε αυτή, που δείχνει ότι η καταγωγή της λέξης ‘Χημεία’ μπορεί να είναι απευθείας αιγυπτιακή αλλά με κλίση περισσότερο προς την έννοια της Αλχημείας.

Μάλιστα, η λέξη αλχημεία⁽³⁾ προέρχεται από το αραβικό ‘al-kīmiyā’ όπου το δεύτερο συστατικό της λέξης προφέρεται όπως και το ‘khēmia’ παραπάνω, υποδεικνύοντας απευθείας αιγυπτιακή καταγωγή, και που αφορά και πάλι το αρχαίο όνομα της Αιγύπτου στην αιγυπτιακή γλώσσα σημαίνοντας ‘Αιγυπτιακή τέχνη’ ή ‘μαύρη τέχνη.’

Το ‘τέχνη’ (art) έχει να κάνει και με τη μαγεία να σημειωθεί επίσης.

Συνεπώς, η Χημεία ήταν βασίλειο πολύ πριν γίνει επιστήμη!

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(1) Οι πλημμύρες του Νείλου λάμβαναν χώρα μεταξύ Μαϊου και Αυγούστου κατά την εποχή του Akhet (άνοδος των υδάτων, πλημμύρα) ως αποτέλεσμα των ετήσιων μουσώνων που προκαλούσαν μεγάλες κατακρημνίσεις στα Αιθιοπικά υψίπεδα.

(2) Η δομή του ‘khēmia,’ ωστόσο, θα έλεγα ότι συνιστά μάλλον Φοινικική/Καναανίτικη προέλευση αλλά και πάλι ενδεχομένως να εμφανίστηκε μέσα στα όρια της Αιγύπτου δεδομένων των μεγάλων αριθμών από Σημίτες/Καναανίτες που ήταν εγκατεστημένοι στο ανατολικό Δέλτα του Νείλου ήδη από τους πρώτους αιώνες της δεύτερης χιλιετερίδας π.Χ.

(3) Το ‘αλχημεία’ ουσιαστικά αναλύεται αρχικά ως ‘η χημεία’ καθώς το πρόθεμα ‘αλ-‘ δεν είναι τίποτα άλλο από το αντίστοιχο αραβικό οριστικό άρθρο.

The primordial Ourea (or more likely Ur-Ea)

The Ourea (/ˈu:rea/, or alternatively Orea /`orea/) were ten primordial deities offspring of Titaness Gaia (or Gaea) that preceded most of the Titans and corresponded to as many respective deified holy mountains as guardians that spanned most of the very ancient known world.

Mount Uludağ, northwest modern Turkey, the ancient Phrygian Mount Olympus or Ulympus

Albeit considered part of the Hellenic (more properly Helenic – and not Greek!) mythology, they are actually inactive characters therein and some only present some action in stories beyond its sphere which, along with the clearly Anatolian structure of the name, strongly recommends an origin from the east.

That said, both forms look most likely Phrygian in descent as the interchange between the sounds /u/ and /o/ as concerns the letter ‘O’ is conspicuous in Old Phrygian, stretching over the best part of their history, where ‘Ω’ and apparently also the diphthong ‘OY’ were introduced to render the former sound in New Phrygian, attested between the first and third century AD (if not earlier).

The Hellenes (more properly Helénoi, or Helénēs), on the other hand, did not use ‘OY’ to render the sound /u/ but ‘Y,’ or ‘Ω’ (Ionians), whereas it was the so-called Koine (Common) that did when it emerged in Anatolia around 330 BC, a ‘bastard’ dialect they didn’t reckon as Hellenic but barbaric anyway.

Which, in turn, spells that ‘Orea’ is the older and ‘Ourea’ a much later form of the appellation in writing though the former effectively contained the latter phonetically.

On top of that, not only the stem ‘or-‘ seems to feature well in Old Phrygian but there was further a similar word ‘ΟΡ-ΥΑΝ’ (voiced as ‘or-uan’ or ‘ur-uan’) that means ‘guardian’ or ‘warden,’ a trait that well fits that of the Ourea.

Nonetheless, the quest of the roots of the name most likely doesn’t wind up here but rather runs far deeper in the past and east among the very influential Hurrians, out of the ranks of whom the Phrygians look as though they may as well have emerged themselves.

Looking closer, the pattern and pronunciation of either Our-ea or Or-ea strongly suggest and reflect a most likely earlier Hurrian form as ‘Ur-Ea’⁽¹⁾ behind it; where ‘ur,’ pronounced as either /ur/ or /or/ just like Phrygian ‘Or-,’ carries the sense of ‘elevated/above ground,’ ‘primeval/primordial’ or ‘source of (divine) light’ whilst ‘ea’ spells ‘earth, ground, mound’ and therefore meets the profile a great deal.

Now, the ten Ourea, or Orea, are lined up on several websites as Aitna (or Aetna), Athos, Helicon, Kithairon, Nys(s)os, Olympus 1, Olympus 2, Oreios, Parnes, and Tmolus – yet a list that doesn’t fully add up on a couple of grounds.

First, there cannot be two (or more) of the same offspring that bear the very same name and yet the above list displays two Ourea under the appellation Olympus, which correspond to the respective mountains in ancient Phrygia and Thessaly. Therefore, one of them is not the original.

Second, the line-up on display doesn’t show Belos (or Belus), a confirmed Oureo⁽²⁾ (or Oreo), which is actually the original name of Mount Olympus in Thessaly (nowadays Greece). The name itself breaks down as Bel-os/us and forms the apparent Anatolian and Hellenic rendering of Bel, Belu or Ba’al (meaning ‘Lord,’ ‘Master’), a major Akkadian, Babylonian and Phoenician god (or gods).

For that matter, Herodorus recounts that Cadmus⁽³⁾ and his men drove away the Hestiaeans, apparently Leleges (Luwian speaking peoples out of Anatolia), from northwestern Thessaly which entails a Phoenician hold over the region, with storm god Ba’al (Zeus)⁽⁴⁾ set up on the ‘throne’ of the mountain, in the wake in deep ancient times.

On the other hand, the Phrygian Olympus is the genuine one as there was actually a Phrygian mountain god named Olympos, who may be the same as the namesake Oureo, that was an early consort of supreme goddess Cybele as well as considered the inventor of the flute and father of the flute-playing Satyrs.

The name Olympus, or alternatively Ulympus, is most likely Phrygian as well. But I will discuss the matter of Olympus, which is very intriguing, at far greater length in a separate post as it merits. For the time, let’s now look at the proper make-up of the Ourea:

Aitna (or Aetna), Athos, Helicon, Kithairon, Nys(s)os, Olympus (Phrygia), Belus (later Thessalian Olympus), Oreios, Parnes, and Tmolus.

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(1) Ea is also the name of the Akkadian and Babylonian god of the earth.

(2) Oureo (or Oreo) is most likely the root of modern Greek ‘όρος’ (`oros,’ mountain).

(3) Belus was also a legendary Pharaoh of Egypt of divine lineage who was further twin brother of King Agenor of Tyre (Phoenicia), father of Cadmus, and long ancestor of Perseus, the legendary founder of Mycenae.

(4) As I have reiterated, Zeus is an epithet (title) and not a theonym applied to king gods and Ba’al was a storm god that resembled the Zeus we have in mind a great deal at that.

Το ενδιαφέρον (Λυδικό) γράμμα ‘Λ’ στα ελληνικά αλφάβητα

Μελετώντας το (Ευκλείδειο) Ελληνικό αλφάβητο ξανά πρόσφατα, μου έκανε ιδιαίτερη εντύπωση για πρώτη φορά ότι το γράμμα ‘Λ’ στη μέση του ονομαζόταν στην πραγματικότητα ‘Λάμπ-ντα’ σε σύγκριση με το ‘Λάμ-δα’ στην λεγόμενη Νεοελληνική.

Ο λόγος είναι ότι το πρόθεμα/πρώτο συστατικό ‘λάμπ-‘ της λέξης είναι για την ακρίβεια Λυδικό φέροντας την έννοια του ‘διπλό(ς)/ή,’ συνήθως σε συμμετρική μορφή – και το ‘Λ’ εμφανίζει δυο ‘σκέλη’ και συμμετρικά ως προς την κορυφή του.

Το οποίο, με τη σειρά του, σημαίνει ότι οι Ίωνες στο ανατολικό Αιγαίο προφανώς δεν είχαν δικό τους όνομα για το γράμμα και έτσι το ενσωμάτωσαν στα δικά τους αλφάβητα όπως ακριβώς το βρήκαν.

Ακόμη και αν το αντίστοιχο Λυδικό γράμμα (𐤩) δεν είναι το ίδιο συμμετρικό* αλλά εξακολουθεί να παρουσιάζει δύο ‘σκέλη’ στις αντίστοιχες πλευρές της κορυφής του. Ενδέχεται, τουλάχιστον για κάποιες λέξεις ή ονόματα, να είχε τον ήχο ‘ντ’ σε αντιστοιχία με το ‘Δ’ ωστόσο.

Εδώ θα πρέπει να πούμε ότι το ‘συμμετρικό’ Λ εμφανίζεται για πρώτη φορά στο Φρυγικό αλφάβητο ενώ δεν εμφανίζεται στο αντίστοιχο Λυδικό. Αλλά οι Λυδοί φαίνεται ότι χρησιμοποιούσαν το Φρυγικό πριν αναπτύξουν το ιδιαίτερο δικό τους κατά τον 7ο αιώνα π.Χ. οπότε οι Ίωνες προφανώς το δανείστηκαν ‘έμμεσα’ από αυτούς.

Ο συλλογισμός, επιστρέφοντας, πίσω από τη λυδική καταγωγή του ‘λαμπ-‘ βρίσκεται την πολύ ενδιαφέρουσα λέξη ‘ΛΑΒΡΥΣ’ (προφερόμενη ως ‘λαμπ-ρους’) που σημαίνει (συμμετρικός) ‘διπλός πέλεκυς,’ που είναι Λυδική όπως βεβαιώνει ο Παυσανίας και μοιράζεται το ίδιο πρόθεμα.

Οι Έλληνες, ξανά, δεν είχαν όνομα για το συγκεκριμένο σύμβολο/όπλο στις δικές τους γλώσσες και έτσι το υιοθέτησαν από εκείνους από τους οποίους προήλθε, τους Λυδούς (το δεύτερο συστατικό ‘-ΡΥΣ’ σημαίνοντας ΄πέλεκυς’ κατά συνέπεια).

Η λέξη ‘ΛΑΒΡΥΣ’ μπορεί κάλλιστα να βρίσκεται πίσω από το όνομα/λέξη ‘ΛΑΒΥΡΙΝΘΟΣ,’ προφερόμενο ως ‘λαμπούριντος,’ από την άποψη ότι η ‘Αίθουσα των Διπλών Πελέκεων’ που αποτελεί ένα σημαντικό μέρος από το Παλάτι/Ανάκτορο της Κνωσσού (Κρήτη), κτισμένο σε μια εποχή που χαρακτηρίζεται από μια μεγάλη εισροή από λαούς της Ανατολίας, εμφανίζει το σύμβολο καταφανώς ολόγυρα.

Και προσωπικά υποπτεύομαι ότι η αρχαία λέξη ‘ΛΑΒΙΣ’ (ή ‘ΛΑΒΥΣ;’), που είναι η λαβίδα, είναι επισης Λυδικής προέλευσης και με την ίδια ρίζα ενώ το εργαλείο παρουσιάζει δύο ‘βραχίωνες’ (συνήθως’ συμμετρικούς) το ίδιο μάλιστα.

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Γλωσσάριο (Λυδικές λέξεις με Ελληνική ορθογραφία)

ΛΑΒΡΥΣ /λαμπ-ρους/ διπλός πέλεκυς

ΛΑΒ- /λαμπ-/ (πρόθεμα) διπλό(ς)/ή

ΡΥΣ /ρους/ πέλεκυς

ΛΑΒΙΣ (ή ΛΑΒΥΣ) /λαμπ-ις ή λαμπ-ους/ λαβίδα

The ancient ball game of Episkyros

No, that wasn’t actually football despite what it may look like at first sight! First impressions can many times be misleading, you know.

That game, depicted on an Attic lekythos, was called ‘Episkyros’ or ‘Phaininda’ (among other names), or they may have been two different versions of the same game.

More precisely, it involved two teams of a dozen to fourteen players apiece that could use both hands and feet to tackle the ball, with full physical contact allowed.

Actually, it more of resembled rugby rather than football and there weren’t goals scored but the aim was to force the opposition, through combinations with the ball, to drop behind their ‘goal line.’

Moreover, the ball itself was smaller in size that a modern football, rather brightly painted, and was made out of pieces of leather that were sewn together containing animal entrails.

‘Episkyros’ seemed to be particularly linked to and was very popular in Sparta, where it could also be quite violent, where the ‘Phaininda’ looks like a version rather played in other regions.

The appellation ‘Episkyros’ apparently breaks down as ‘epi-skyros’ spelling ‘on the (halfway) line’ since there was a halfway line that, as the name suggests, was made out of small fragments/debris of some material (skyros).

On the other hand, the version of ‘Phaininda’ (or very likely ‘Phaeninda’ too) is attributed to the Phainides (or likely Phaenides) but who the latter were is not clear. The first component, yet, of ‘phain/phaen-‘ suggests a likely Phrygian or even a Thrasian origin.

Whether the latter was played only by Hellenes or not is not established or clear as the applied name ‘Greek,’ which didn’t exist at the time, is many times arbitrarily used by modern historians.

The earliest known form of a team game played entirely with the feet was the Chinese ‘Cuju’ where the aim was to direct the ball through an opening in a raised net, first mentioned in the third century BC.